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Executive Summary
#### Overview:
This article explores Mao Zedong’s extensive engagement with Western knowledge, challenging the common perception that he primarily focused on ancient Chinese texts. The piece highlights how Mao’s study of Western philosophy, history, and natural sciences significantly influenced his leadership, governance, and revolutionary strategies.
#### Key Points:
1. **Early Exposure to Western Ideas:**
– **Youthful Exploration:** From 1910, Mao began studying Western works, including those by Darwin, Adam Smith, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. These readings shaped his understanding of economics, politics, and society.
– **Influence of Enlightenment Thinkers:** Works from the European Enlightenment, particularly those impacting the French Revolution, were pivotal in Mao’s ideological development.
2. **Philosophical Foundations:**
– **Western Philosophy as a Teacher:** Mao regarded Western philosophy highly, drawing insights from ancient Greek philosophy, German classical philosophy, and modern Anglo-American thought.
– **Key Philosophers:** He studied Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, Feuerbach, and Haeckel, emphasizing their contributions to dialectics, materialism, and idealism.
– **Integration with Marxism:** Mao believed Marxist philosophy must evolve by integrating lessons from Western philosophical traditions to suit China’s needs.
3. **Historical Context and Revolutionary Strategy:**
– **Comparative Analysis:** Mao drew parallels between Western bourgeois revolutions (American, French, German) and China’s new democratic revolution, using these historical references to inform his strategies against feudalism and land reforms.
– **French Revolution Focus:** He extensively read about the French Revolution, appreciating its complexity and thoroughness, which resonated with the Chinese revolutionary experience.
4. **Scientific and Technological Insights:**
– **Natural Sciences:** Mao advocated for learning from Western advancements in natural sciences, including astronomy, biology, and physics.
– **Philosophical Interpretations:** He interpreted scientific theories philosophically, such as the infinite divisibility of matter and the asymmetry in physical balance, reflecting his holistic approach to knowledge.
5. **Pragmatic Approach to Learning:**
– **Breaking Superstitions:** While acknowledging Western advancements, Mao encouraged breaking superstitions about Western superiority. He promoted sending students abroad and importing equipment while opposing oppressive practices.
– **Continuous Learning:** Throughout his life, Mao remained committed to understanding and integrating Western knowledge, ensuring it served China’s revolutionary and developmental goals.
#### Conclusion:
Mao Zedong’s deep engagement with Western knowledge underscores his pragmatic and adaptive leadership style. By synthesizing Western ideas with Chinese contexts, Mao crafted a unique approach to governance and revolution, emphasizing continuous learning and innovation. His legacy illustrates the importance of cross-cultural intellectual exchange in addressing national challenges and fostering progress.
Article
Note before starting: for those listening or watching, please refer to the written article for proper names, etc.
There is an impression in society that Mao Zedong liked to delve into ancient Chinese books, was not very willing to read Western works, and does not understand Western knowledge. Mao Zedong did read more ancient Chinese literary and historical works than Western works, and was more interested in them. But it cannot be said that he did not understand Western knowledge or was unwilling to read it. In fact, Mao Zedong was not only interested in Western works, but also read quite a lot in his time.
In his youth, Mao Zedong consciously came into contact with Western knowledge, which was called “new knowledge” at that time, starting from the autumn of 1910 when he went to Dongshan Primary School to study. In the autumn and winter of 1912, Mao Zedong studied for half a year in Dingwangtai Library in Changsha, Hunan.
Later, when talking about the content of his self-study, what impressed him most were mainly Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, Adam Smith’s economic works, Montesquieu’s and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s legal and political works, John Stuart Mill’s logical works, Herbert Spencer’s sociological works, etc., which were translated for the Chinese by Yan Fu. It should be said that this was a relatively systematic contact and understanding of Western knowledge for the young Mao Zedong. In particular, the works of Montesquieu and Rousseau are representative works of the European Enlightenment in the 18th century, which had a direct impact on the French Revolution and are must-read books for understanding the system of Western capitalist countries and their causes.
When meeting with Chilean politicians on May 15, 1959, Mao Zedong recalled,
I believed in German Immanuel Kant’s idealism and anarchism at that time. I admired American George Washington, French Napoleon Bonaparte, and Italian Guiseppi Garibaldi and read their biographies. I believed in Adam Smith’s political economy, British Thomas Huxley’s and Charles Darwin’s Theories of Evolution, which are the bourgeois philosophy, sociology, and economics.
Reading Western works had a significant impact on Mao Zedong’s ideological exploration in his youth. Before and after the May Fourth Movement, Mao Zedong paid more attention to reading and translating books and periodicals on new ideas, new culture, and new trends. At that time, the so-called “new ideas”, “new culture”, and “new trends” were actually Western culture, Western bourgeois ideas, and various social and political trends popular in the West. Mao Zedong was very interested in modern Western thinkers and philosophers such as Russians Leo Tolstoy and Peter Kropotkin, French Henri Bergson, American John Dewey, and British Bertrand Russell.
In a letter to Li Jinxi on June 7, 1920, he said that,
Recently, I have only studied English philosophy and newspapers. Philosophy has been gradually improved from the ‘three great modern philosophers’ (Bergson, Russell, and Dewey).
In 1920, when he ran the Changsha Cultural Publishing House, Mao Zedong also mainly recommended translated works of Western knowledge to readers, including Plato’s “The Republic”, Russell’s “Political Ideals” and “Principles of Social Reconstruction”, Dewey’s “The Development of Democracy in the United States” and “Modern Education Trends”. Mao Zedong’s generation of advanced Chinese intellectuals sought their own “spiritual station” in the process of fierce collision and mutual comparison between Chinese and Western cultures. Mao Zedong’s final choice to believe in Marxism was also determined after repeated comparisons of various Western political propositions and doctrines.
Starting from the Yan’an Period (1930s), reading a large number of Marxist works became an important way for Mao Zedong to understand Western knowledge. Marxism itself is a kind of Western knowledge. It was only after it became the guiding ideology of the Communist Party of China, that it was separated from Western thought and culture. Reading the works of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin cannot help but involve a lot of Western philosophy, economics, politics, culture, and history; without understanding the basic content of Western knowledge in these fields, it is difficult to understand Marx and Lenin, and it is difficult to understand the ins and outs of the emergence and development of Marxism-Leninism.
Lenin had a book called “Summary of Hegel’s Logic”, which was his notes on reading Hegel’s Logic. Mao Zedong liked to read it very much and often quoted some words from the book. On September 19, 1970, when he proposed that leading cadres should strengthen their studies, he gave an example,
To let everyone know how Marxism-Leninism developed, they should read “The Third Coup of Napoleon” and “The Civil War in France”.
Reading Marx and Lenin certainly cannot replace reading Western knowledge directly. After the founding of New China (1949), Mao Zedong read and talked about Western knowledge in a relatively calm and broad manner. When he visited the Soviet Union in 1949, he concentrated on watching dozens of biographical films of Russian and European historical figures, such as “Peter the Great”, “Napoleon”, “Mikail Kutuzov”, etc. Shi Zhe, who served as the translator, recalled that when Mao Zedong visited Joseph Stalin, Stalin told Shi,
Mao Zedong is really smart. He watches biographical films whenever he has time. This is the simplest way to understand history.
In his later years, Mao Zedong also asked publishing houses to print some Western works in large print for him to read, including Lewis H. Morgan’s “Ancient Society”, “A General History of the World”, co-authored by Carlton Hayes, Parker Moon, John Wayland; “Napoleon”, written by the Frenchman Forré; “Napoleon Biography”, written by Soviet Eugene Tarlé: Darwin’s “The Origin of Species”, Yang Zhenning’s “A Brief History of the Discovery of Elementary Particles”, etc. Mao Zedong’s reading of Western works was not aimless. In comparison, he was more interested in, paid more attention to, and read more in three categories: Western philosophy, Western modern history, and Western natural science.
Regarding Western philosophy, Mao Zedong said that it “is our teacher.” Regarding Western philosophy, Mao Zedong knew much about ancient Greek philosophy, German classical philosophy, and modern Anglo-American philosophy. In a conversation with foreign guests on February 9, 1964, Mao Zedong once sorted out his understanding of Western philosophy,
Socrates focused on ethics. He was not a materialist, nor a theorist of dialectics, but he paid attention to studying ethics and constitution and fighting against enemies. He lived an unhappy life and died miserably. Plato was a thorough idealist. He wrote a book called “The Republic” and developed idealism. Later, Aristotle criticized his idealism. Aristotle was a great scholar, higher than the previous two. He studied many aspects of natural science, criticized Plato’s idealism, and founded formal logic. In the Middle Ages, Europe admired Aristotle very much. In more modern Germany, Kant’s teacher was Aristotle. Kant was also a remarkable man. He founded the nebular theory in astronomy. He also created twelve categories, all of which were the unity of opposites, but he could not explain these problems. He said that the essence of things is unknowable, and he was an agnostic. Hegel’s teacher was Kant. Hegel was an idealist. He greatly developed the dialectics of idealism, that is, objective dialectics. He was the teacher of Marx and Engels, the teacher of Lenin, and our teacher. For Marx and Engels, without the German classical philosophy of Kant, Hegel and Feuerbach, there would be no Marxist philosophy.
The core meaning of this passage is to emphasize that the study of Marxist philosophy cannot sever its connection with the history of Western philosophy. There is an example worth mentioning about Mao Zedong’s understanding of modern German philosophy. German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel was a representative of materialism and an atheist in the field of natural science. Mao Zedong read the book called “Haeckel’s Monistic Philosophy” when he was running the Changsha Cultural Bookstore in 1920. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Haeckel’s representative work “The Mystery of the Universe – A Popular Reading on Monistic Philosophy” was translated and published.
On October 30, 1975, when Mao Zedong met with German Chancellor Schmidt, he told him: I am interested in Hegel, Feuerbach, Kant, and Haeckel’s books. Then he asked the foreign guests present whether they had read Haeckel’s works. As a result, only Schmidt said that he had read them. Some other foreign guests said that they had not read them, and some did not know Haeckel. The Chinese translator even translated Haeckel into Hegel. Mao Zedong immediately corrected,
It is Ernst Haeckel.
Schmidt later said in his memoir “Great Men and Great Powers” that he and Mao Zedong spent ten minutes discussing Haeckel’s crude materialist work, “The Mystery of the Universe”. It was in the process of reading Western philosophy that Mao Zedong deeply felt philosophy, as a tool of cognition and a theoretical weapon, always serves reality and reflects and supports the actual needs of various countries. In this regard, he said with deep understanding in a conversation while reading the Soviet “Political Economics Textbook” at the end of 1959 and the beginning of 1960,
Bourgeois philosophers all serve their current politics, and every country and every period have new theorists who write new theories. Britain once had bourgeois materialists like Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes; France once had materialists like the “Encyclopedists”; the German and Russian bourgeoisie also had their materialists.” Although they are all materialists, each has its own characteristics. Without understanding the philosophy of modern Western countries, there will be no such specific understanding.
The meaning of this passage is also very clear, that is, to emphasize Marxist philosophy, it must also develop and innovate to adapt to China’s actual needs.
Regarding modern Western history, Mao Zedong said,
To make a revolution, you need to understand the revolutionary history of several countries.
When Mao Zedong met with Cambodian King Prince Sihanouk on May 1, 1970, he proposed,
To make a revolution, you need to understand the revolutionary history of several countries, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the German Revolution.
Mao Zedong paid attention to reading modern Western history, and the reason is roughly the same.
In Mao Zedong’s view, the bourgeois revolutions in the modern West and the new democratic revolution in China have similarities in some content and process, and the experience of the former can be used as a reference. For example, how to solve the task of opposing feudalism, how to solve the peasant land problem, and the problem that revolution always goes from weak to strong, etc.
American journalist Theodore White said in his article “Indelible Impression” that when Mao Zedong talked with him in Yan’an,
He precisely discussed land ownership and feudalism in Western Europe.
Mao then compared the Chinese situation I saw in Yan’an with the American revolution that a foreign journalist saw when he met George Washington in Valley Forge. Mao said,
In the eyes of foreigners, perhaps the situation in Yan’an is very backward in all aspects, just as they may have only seen Washington’s simple headquarters and did not realize that Washington’s ideas could make him victorious.
He asked,
Did George Washington have machines? Did George Washington have electricity? No. Although the British had these things, Washington won because people supported him.
In mid-June 1950, Liu Shaoqi made a “Report on the Land Reform Issue” at the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, in which he talked about some land reform issues in modern Western history. After reading this report, Mao Zedong felt that things in the West were very complicated. The methods and results of bourgeois revolutions in Western countries were not exactly the same. Therefore, it was not easy to make a general comparison between the changes in land ownership in the West and land reform in China. So, he wrote to Liu Shaoqi,
Among capitalist countries, only France distributed land more thoroughly during the Napoleon I era and before. Britain destroyed the feudal land ownership system after capitalism invaded the countryside, not the land reform like ours. Germany and Italy are roughly the same, but less thorough than Britain, and still retain many feudal relics. In Japan, the feudal land system has always extensively existed, and it was not until after Japan surrendered that the Americans carried out a very incomplete “land reform”, and now there is still serious feudalism. The United States has never had feudalism. Capitalist agriculture grew from the beginning when European immigrants came in, so the rural market is particularly large. Only the liberation of serfs in several southern states of the United States happened in the Lincoln era, which was an anti-slavery struggle. Since the history of various countries is so complicated, most of them are different from the current situation in our country, where land reform was carried out first and industry was developed later, so it is better not to write about international history.
When Mao Zedong read Western modern history, he not only used the Western bourgeois revolutions as a necessary comparison for China’s revolutionary practice from a political perspective, but also paid attention to understanding the development process and experience of capitalist social productivity. On July 15, 1962, when meeting with Pakistani Ambassador to China Rashidi, Mao Zedong talked about the gap between Eastern and Western societies and said,
We have all read the history of Western countries and Western novels. Western countries were still backward in the 17th and 18th centuries. In the 18th century, their novels did not mention railways, trains, electric lights, and cars. They did not have these things at that time. In the 19th century, they did not have many of these things. The working class during the Paris Commune uprising was mainly handicraft workers. They had large-scale workshops with dozens of people under one roof. They were mainly manual labor and there were not many machines. The development of productivity in Western society has been a matter of more than 100 years.
Mao Zedong concluded from this,
In terms of economy, natural science and technology, we Asian and African countries are more backward than them. But as long as we work together, after a few decades, we can change this backward state.
In modern Western history, Mao Zedong paid the most attention to the history of the French Revolution and read more works in this area. On May 1, 1970, he talked with Cambodian King Prince Sihanouk,
There are many people who have written about the history of the French Revolution. I have read the history of the French Revolution written by Albert Mathiez, a Frenchman, and found it vigorous; I have read the history of the French Revolution written by a Soviet man, and found it too simple; I have also read the history of the French Revolution written by a British man, and found it too simple; I have also read the history of the French Revolution written by another British man, and found it too simple.
Mao Zedong also often discussed some details of the history of the French Revolution with foreign guests from France and French-speaking countries in Africa. On July 10, 1972, he talked in detail with visiting French Foreign Minister Schuman about the French Revolution that beheaded Louis XVI and the whole of Europe attacking France. He talked about Robespierre, the leader of the Mountain Party, who was a country lawyer. When he first arrived in Paris, he stuttered and relied on the Jacobins to get started. Mao then talked about the Battle of Toulon, which made Napoleon famous; with Schuman, Mao talked about Napoleon governing almost the whole of Europe, but then making mistakes and implementing not quite-right policies; talked about Napoleon’s strategic mistakes, first, he should not have occupied Spain, and second, he should not have attacked Russia; because wintering there is difficult and he should have chosen to attack Saint Petersburg instead; Napoleon also failed to capture the Tsar at once, which was also a miscalculation. Mao even talked about whether Napoleon died of stomach disease or was poisoned, etc.
Mao Zedong liked to read about the history of the French Revolution, probably because the Chinese Revolution and the French Revolution are relatively close in terms of complexity, intensity, and thoroughness.
Regarding Western natural sciences, Mao Zedong said that in this regard,
Orientals should learn from the West.
When Mao Zedong read Western natural sciences, he was more interested in representative works on the history of celestial bodies, the history of the earth, the history of biology, and the history of human evolution. Mao Zedong took the time to read and understand the nebular theories of Kant and French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, the debate between the Morgan school and the Michurin school in the field of genetics, soil science, the new concept of elementary particles in physics, and the theory of cosmic non-conservation proposed by Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao.
Mao Zedong had a characteristic, when reading Western natural sciences, which was to understand and develop them from a philosophical perspective. For example, after reading the book “New Concepts of Elementary Particles” by Japanese physicist Shoichi Sakata, he proposed that the world is infinite in both time and space. The universe is infinite from a large perspective, and it is also infinite from a small perspective. Not only atoms can be divided, but also atomic nuclei and electrons can be divided, and they can be divided infinitely.
For another example, when meeting with Chinese-American physicist Tsung-Dao Lee on May 30, 1974, when Lee explained the theory of cosmic non-conservation proposed by him and Chen-Ning Yang in 1956, Mao Zedong’s understanding was,
It’s like my shoulders, one side is high and the other side is low, just like my eyes, one is good and the other is bad. It means that things are unbalanced in symmetry.
After Tsung-Dao Lee demonstrated on the spot that balance and symmetry in physics are not the same thing, Mao Zedong also developed it and said:
The ancient Greek Euclid’s three-dimensional universe is motionless, and objects are motionless. It focuses on space, not time. Time is motion. Time is a property of space, and there is no motion without space.
In 1796, Laplace of France published the book “The System of the Universe”, which proposed the nebula hypothesis about the origin of the solar system. Because it is consistent with the basic arguments of Kant’s theory, it is called “Kant-Laplace theory” by later generations. In the 1940s, Otto Schmidt, a Soviet mathematician, astronomer and geophysicist, proposed the “meteorite theory” of the origin of the solar system, also known as the “capture theory”. Mao Zedong paid close attention to both theories. When talking with Li Siguang on May 19, 1969, Mao Zedong said,
I think what Kant and Laplace said makes some sense. I don’t quite believe Schmidt’s statement.
For some reason, Mao Zedong often talked about Laplace’s contribution. For example, when meeting with Moussa Traoré, the head of state and prime minister of Mali, on June 22, 1973, probably because Mali is a French-speaking country, Mao Zedong told him,
Laplace was a mathematician and astronomer at the University of Paris. He made great progress on Kant’s theory and established the nebular theory, that is, the entire universe was in the form of clouds and mist at the beginning, and then slowly condensed to form a fireball, and became the current solar system.
In natural science research, Mao Zedong always admitted that the West was ahead and insisted on knowledge from them. Of course, he also advocated breaking superstitions about the West, but breaking superstitions and knowledge from Western developed countries were not contradictory in his view. In this regard, when meeting with Nepalese Prime Minister Koirala on March 18, 1960, Mao Zedong made it very clear,
Every nation has strengths and weaknesses. We should learn from the strengths of every nation, no matter how big or small these nations are. We Orientals have a sense of inferiority, always feeling that we are not good enough and that White people are better than us. This is a superstition that must be broken. We must both break the superstition and learn from the West. There is no contradiction between breaking superstitions and knowledge from them, such as we can send students abroad and import their equipment. I am not against everything in the West, but only against those things that oppress and bully people. We should learn from their culture and science. Orientals should learn from the West, and learn from the West under the condition of breaking superstitions.
Reference: https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1688165475321146039&wfr=spider&for=pc
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Praise for The China Trilogy:
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JEFF J. BROWN, Editor, China Rising, and Senior Editor & China Correspondent, Dispatch from Beijing, The Greanville Post
Jeff J. Brown is a geopolitical analyst, journalist, lecturer and the author of The China Trilogy. It consists of 44 Days Backpacking in China – The Middle Kingdom in the 21st Century, with the United States, Europe and the Fate of the World in Its Looking Glass (2013); Punto Press released China Rising – Capitalist Roads, Socialist Destinations (2016); and BIG Red Book on China (2020). As well, he published a textbook, Doctor WriteRead’s Treasure Trove to Great English (2015). Jeff is a Senior Editor & China Correspondent for The Greanville Post, where he keeps a column, Dispatch from Beijing and is a Global Opinion Leader at 21st Century. He also writes a column for The Saker, called the Moscow-Beijing Express. Jeff writes, interviews and podcasts on his own program, China Rising Radio Sinoland, which is also available on YouTube, Stitcher Radio, iTunes, Ivoox and RUvid. Guests have included Ramsey Clark, James Bradley, Moti Nissani, Godfree Roberts, Hiroyuki Hamada, The Saker and many others. [/su_spoiler]
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